L.S. Cousins, “Pali Oral Literature”, 1983

Ref: L.S. Cousins, “Pali Oral Literature”, 1983, Buddhist Studies: Ancient and Modern (P. Denwood & A. Piatigorsky eds.) 1983 pp. 1–11, Buddhism : Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Vol. I, P. Williams, 2005 [download] [url]

L.S. Cousins, “Samatha-yana and Vipassana-yana”, 1984

Ref: L.S. Cousins, “Samatha-yana and Vipassana-yana”, 1984, Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhātissa – 1984 (Dhammapala, Gombrich, Norman – Editors) [download] [url]

Asked about samatha (calm) and vipassana (insight) meditation, a well-known contemporary Thai meditation teacher commented at the end of his reply: “These days many people cling to the words. They call their practice vipassanii. Samatha is looked down on. Or they call their practice samatha. It is essential to do samatha before vipassana, they say. “1 This summarizes quite exactly a debate which is frequently encountered in Thailand and, using a slightly different terminology, in Sri Lanka also. It seemed therefore useful to re-examine the use of these two terms in the earlier Pali literature, hoping to see exactly how ancient this kind of usage is and whether there is any clear position on the matter in the classical texts. For the purposes of this investigation I shall treat the earliest stratum of Pali literature as consi&ting of the Vinaya texts (excluding the Parivara), the first four Nikayas and the Sutta-Nipilta. It is, of course, obvious that there is some historical stratification within these works. However, I do not accept that there are adequate criteria available for a convincing analysis into distinct periods. Nor is sufficient historical information available to determine the likely time-scale for such periods.

Rupert Gethin, “The Matikas: Memorization, Mindfulness and the List”, 1992

Ref: Rupert Gethin, “The Matikas: Memorization, Mindfulness and the List”, 1992, N/A [download] [url]

Most people coming into contact with Buddhist literature and thought outside traditional Buddhist cultures are probably struck by the fact that it seems to be full of lists. Indeed, nearly all introductory accounts of Buddhism straight away present the reader with two fundamental Buddhist lists: that of the noble eightfold path (ariyo atthangiko maggo) and that of the four noble truths (ariya-sacca). This is only the beginning. Very soon one gains the impression that Buddhism has a convenient list for everything: the three jewels, the five aggregates, the five precepts, the eight noble persons, the ten fetters, the ten unwholesome courses of action, and so on. It is apparent that much of the scriptural sutta material preserved in the four primary Nikayas can be regarded as exposition based around lists of one sort or another, and that very many suttas might be resolved into and summed up in terms of their component lists.

Rupert Gethin, ““On the Practice of Buddhist Meditation According to the Pali Nikāyas and Exegetical Sources””, 2004

Ref: Rupert Gethin, ““On the Practice of Buddhist Meditation According to the Pali Nikāyas and Exegetical Sources””, 2004, N/A [download] [url]

The problem of the term ‘meditation’
Few, I suppose, would wish to dispute the suggestion that one of the primary concerns of early Buddhist texts is ‘meditation’. It is perhaps a little surprising then that it is by n o means clear what Pali (or Sanskrit) term English, or for that matter German, words such as ‘meditate/meditieren’ and ‘meditation’ trans­late. Sometimes it is suggested that bhaveti/ bhavana are the corresponding terms, but these words, representing causative forms from the root bhü, more stricty mean ‘bringing into being’, ‘cultivation’, or ‘development’, and certainlythere are many contexts in the early texts where the translation ‘meditation’ or ‘meditates’ would n o t work. Alternatively one might suggest jhana/jhayati de­riving from the Sanskrit root dhya, and indicating ‘deep thought’, but in Bud­dhist literature jhana comes to have a specific technical meaning: someone who practices jhana is not simply meditating, but rather someone who has accom­plished a certain level of proficiency in meditation and attained a relatively sta­ble state of deep concentration or absorption, defined in precise psychological and emotional terms. Another candidate is yoga, which is a term that is used generally in Indian religious writings to mean spiritual practice and thus em­braces various kinds of meditation technique. Certainly terms such as yogin and yogavacara are used in Buddhist texts in the sense of practitioner of yoga or ‘meditator’. However, in the earliest Buddhist texts these terms are not found, and yoga is used not in this sense but in the sense of an emotional and psycho­logical ‘ bond ‘ that ties one to the round of rebirth.

Joanna Jurewicz, “Playing with Fire: The pratityasamutpada from the perspective of Vedic thought”, 2000

Ref: Joanna Jurewicz, “Playing with Fire: The pratityasamutpada from the perspective of Vedic thought”, 2000, Journal of the Pali Text Society 26 (2000) pp. 77 – 103, Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Vol. I, P. Williams, 2005 [download] [url]

The present paper is an attempt to look at the law of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada) from the perspective of earlier Vedic thought, rather than that of the Buddhist tests and tradition. This perspective reveals several striking similarities between the Buddha’s chain and the Vedic ideas of creation.

Joy Manné, “Categories of Sutta in the Pali Nikayas and Their Implications for Our Appreciation of the Buddhist Teaching and Literature”, 1990

Ref: Joy Manné, “Categories of Sutta in the Pali Nikayas and Their Implications for Our Appreciation of the Buddhist Teaching and Literature”, 1990, Journal of the Pali Text Society 15 (1990): 29-87. [download] [url]

Suttas in the Pali Canon fall into distinct categories. The three largest of these, Sermons, Debates and Consultations, are analyzed in this paper. These different categories can be clearly defined by means of their introductory and concluding formulas, and their internal structure. The problem of the authenticity of these categories is addressed. The theory is then put forward that the different types of sutta are not equally reliable with regard to the authenticity of the teaching they contain, and especially that the version of the Teaching contained in Sermons and Consultations may be more reliable than that presented in Debates. It is then argued that the ratios of these different types of sutta point to an original difference of purpose between DN and MN: the original purpose of DN being the attraction of converts, that of MN, the presentation of the leader, both as a real person and as an archetype (a Tathagata), and the integration of new monks into the community and the practice.

Sam Van Schaik, “Tibet: a History”, 2011

Ref: Sam Van Schaik, “Tibet: a History”, 2011, Yale University Press , ISBN 9780300154047 [url]

This book presents a comprehensive history of the country of Tibet, from its beginnings in the seventh century, to its rise as a Buddhist empire in medieval times, to its conquest by China in 1950, and subsequent rule by the Chinese. Situated north of the Himalayas, Tibet is famous for its unique culture and its controversial assimilation into modern China. Yet Tibet in the twenty-first century can only be properly understood in the context of its extraordinary history. The author brings the history of Tibet to life by telling the stories of the people involved, from the glory days of the Tibetan empire in the seventh century through to the present day. He explores the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism and the rise of the Dalai Lamas, Tibet’s entanglement in the “Great Game” in the early twentieth century, its submission to Chinese Communist rule in the 1950s, and the troubled times of recent decades. The book sheds light on the country’s complex relationship with China and explains often misunderstood aspects of its culture, such as reborn lamas, monasteries and hermits, The Tibetan Book of the Dead, and the role of the Dalai Lama. The author works through the layers of history and myth to create a narrative that offers readers a greater understanding of this important and controversial corner of the world.

Robert H. Sharf, “Is mindfulness Buddhist? (and why it matters)”, 2014

Ref: Robert H. Sharf, “Is mindfulness Buddhist? (and why it matters)”, 2014, Transcultural Psychiatry [doi] [download] [url]

Modern exponents of mindfulness meditation promote the therapeutic effects of “bare attention”—a sort of non-judgmental, non-discursive attending to the moment-to-moment flow of consciousness. This approach to Buddhist meditation can be traced to Burmese Buddhist reform movements of the first half of the 20th century, and is arguably at odds with more traditional Theravāda Buddhist doctrine and meditative practices. But the cultivation of present-centered awareness is not without precedent in Buddhist history; similar innovations arose in medieval Chinese Zen (Chan) and Tibetan Dzogchen. These movements have several things in common. In each case the reforms were, in part, attempts to render Buddhist practice and insight accessible to laypersons unfamiliar with Buddhist philosophy and/or unwilling to adopt a renunciatory lifestyle. In addition, these movements all promised astonishingly quick results. And finally, the innovations in practice were met with suspicion and criticism from traditional Buddhist quarters. Those interested in the therapeutic effects of mindfulness and bare attention are often not aware of the existence, much less the content, of the controversies surrounding these practices in Asian Buddhist history.